Nuragic Culture of Sardinia

I've wanted to write about nuraghi and the Nuragic culture for a long time, as I visited several of these towers and archaeological sites in Sardinia. I've made this trip about four and a half years ago. Initially, I wrote a few blog posts about Sardinia and put the nuraghi aside because I wanted to acquire more background knowledge. Then other trips and reports came up. But now, surprisingly, I've read about the nuraghi again in a book about "The Last Mysteries of Science" [1]. That prompted me to write this blog post now.

During the transition from the Copper Age to the Early Bronze Age (2200–1600 BC) [2], the Bonnanaro culture was identified in Sardinia based on ceramic finds [3]. It transitioned seamlessly into the Nuragic Age [4]. This is dated to approximately 1600–400 BC (or between 1900 and 730 BC). The Nuraghe period is named after the nuraghi, of which 7,000 have been found, but it is believed that there were originally 10,000. The nuraghi [5] are megalithic tower structures.

The term nuraghe was coined by the Romans from the mid-3rd century BC onwards. According to one hypothesis, the root of the word (“nur”) correlates with the terms “nul” and “nor,” which are found in other parts of the western Mediterranean. The meanings are given as heap, cave or hollow tree, and fire. Another hypothesis suggests the word is of Punic origin. Phoenician-Punic is a Semitic language about which, considering its historical significance, far too little is known [6]. The Arabic nur (light, fire) has been rejected. It seems, that modern Sardinian has retained some old toponyms like nurra, nurri, nurru, which migh be related to nuraghen [7].

There are different types of nuraghi, and the settlements also vary. I will not delve into this further here. Tholosnuraghi are located centrally within a settlement and almost always feature an inner courtyard with a well. The ascent to the top auf the tower is spiral-shaped. The settlements were probably only established around the nuraghi in the last centuries of this culture.

There is no consensus on the function of the nuraghi. Astronomical observation points, religious temples, rulers' residences, military strongholds, meeting halls, and watchtowers have all been suggested. One hypothesis identifies the structures as sites for sacrifices during solar or lunar eclipses. Megalithic complexes are often thought to have an astromal-astrological basis. One of the determined orientations of the entrances to several hundred nuraghi likely points to Alpha Centauri. Watchtowers are rather unlikely, as this would have decentralized the warriors. Perhaps the functions changed as needed. Or several functions were used simultaneously.

In any case, these structures are interesting and well worth a visit.

Links and Annotations:
[1] The book is titled "Die letzten Rätsel der Wissenschaft [The Last Mysteries of Science]" [1a] and is by Felix R. Paturi [1b]. I only noticed while reading that the author has a penchant for esotericism. That's not really my thing. But all the better, perhaps with my current level of knowledge I wouldn't have read it at all.
[1a] Felix R. Paturi: The Last Mysteries of Science. Piper, 2007. ISBN: 9783492247788. pp. 142-147.
[1b] Felix R. Paturi (born 1940) is the pseudonym of Heinz Mindt. He is a German non-fiction author, freelance journalist, and television editor.
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_R._Paturi
[2] The data varies considerably depending on the article, so they should all be considered approximate.
[3] https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnanaro-Kultur and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnanaro_culture
[4] https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuraghenkultur and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuragic_civilization
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuraghe and
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuraghe
[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic_language Interesting: the punic alonim to the hebrew elohim ( אֱלֹהִים); and https://web.archive.org/web/20180722191602/http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a8201399/phoenikisch-punisch-homepage.htm 
[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinian_language 


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Beekeeping in Barumini

 

Warning! Vegans read further at their own risk! [1]

Of course, I visited the Su Nuraxi de Barùmini (that's Sardinian, in Italian one says: Nuraghe di Barumini) attraction with a group in Barumini, but afterwards we also visited a beekeeper and his shop. As I only found out now, we were the penultimate group and we were traveling with Tilo [2], mentioned in the Facebook post. In Germany more honey is consumed than the country can collect. Beekeeping is a profession and also a hobby (German: Imkerei, Italian: apicoltura). It has a long tradition. We even have a word for the collectors of wild honey (Zeidler) and also the activity (Zeidlerei). But the French and Italians are very close to us in this regard, as you can see from the Facebook post.

I used to visit hobby beekeepers, read books about beekeeping and then also dealt with inhaling air that was passed through a beehive [3].

The shop "Apicoltura Isca 'e' Muras" was a good example of what can be made from honey and beeswax. There are certainly things that are completely superfluous. But there are also rare types of honey, such as the slightly bitter strawberry tree honey (Corbezzolo) or the eucalyptus honey. I heard somewhere that there are over 1200 types of honey in Sardinia. Well, you can, but you don't have to try them all.

I think it is important for Sardinia to practice beekeeping. It creates jobs and the sale of the products is guaranteed, not only because of tourists.

Though I don't eat honey anymore myself, I think beekeeping makes sense because the bees are necessary for pollinating the flowers. But one should also look after and protect the wild bees better.

Links and Annotations:
[1] Vegans eschew honey because of good reasons: https://www.careelite.de/en/why-vegans-dont-eat-honey/ Though not living vegan I eschew honey because of selfish reasons as honey leads to glucose an consecutively to insulin spikes.
[2] https://www.facebook.com/apicolturaiscaemuras/posts/1714105342128870
[3] https://rheumatologe.blogspot.com/2021/12/bienenluft-atmen-gegen.html Of course, the promise of salvation from breathing air passed through a beehive is completely far-fetched. By the way, I used an image from Barumini for this blog post.

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Aritzo and San Michele Arcangelo

Aritzo is a small town at an altitude of about 800 m in Sardinia. If you look up Aritzo in the English version of Wikipedia you'll find some more statistical numbers and that's it [1]. I have been disappointed by this article as I enjoyed staying there. Aritzo already intrigued me by the mere name [2]. I suspected an influence of Basque of better Proto-Basque. In the Italian version of Wikipedia you can find this interesting information: “The name would be traced back to that of the chestnut trees, an abundant plant in the area. See also Basque areitz, haritz, for “oak” or “chestnut”, which habe to be evaluated whether it's a native term of that pre-Indo-European language or a loan.” [3]

In old times snow was collected and compacted  inside "nevieres" during winter to be transported and marketed in the form of ice blocks throughout the Campidano (the region from Oristano to Cagliari) during the summer. One of the uses has been the production of a sorbet called Carapigna (In Sardinian: sa carapigna), which is prepared from ice, sugar and lemon [4]. Carapigna has seen a revival like other traditional products, which is seen in other countries, too. Best occasion to see and taste would be “la festa di Sant'Isidoro con la Sagra de sa Carapigna”.

 

 

Bachisio Sulis was born in Aritzo in 1795. At the age of 23, he is unjustly charged of attempted murder and therefore had to spend 12 years as a fugitive, which gave him the nickname „poeta bandito“. He has written touching love poems but also verses against power and anticlerical. He was killed 1838 by a rifle shot from behind a hedge. His nephew published what of his poetry had survived in 1906: „ Poesie Sarde di Bachisio Sulis“. [5]

I could also visit the Parish Church of San Michele Arcangelo (La chiesa parrocchiale di San Michele Arcangelo), which oldest part dates back to the eleventh century. Most of  the current structure is believed to have been built between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in late Gothic style [6]. I reached the church in the late afternoon / early evening and there had been a mass dedicated to Padre Pio [7]. I have been very fortunate and joined the mass. Padre Pio (Saint Pius of Pietrelcina / Italian: Pio da Pietrelcina) lived from 1887 until 1968. He was „an Italian Franciscan Capuchin, friar, priest, stigmatist, and mystic“ [8], who was beatified in 1999 and canonized in 2002 by Pope John Paul II. All participants received a picture of Padre Pio (like a credit card) with the first line of his prayer: „Il Signore ti benedica, ti guardi, volga la sua faccia verso di te; ti dia misericordia e ti dia pace.“ [9]

Visit Aritzo while it's still intact, the lack of jobs is steadily diminishing the population [10]. People are moving from the country to the big cities - keyword rural exodus. Aritzo, more than an insider tip!  

Links and Annotations:
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aritzo  
[2] I had already written about this placename here on my blog: https://rheumatologe.blogspot.com/2021/11/sammelsurium-202-13112021.html
Translation: „Nuragic or Old Sardinian There are no linguistic monuments from the Nuragic period, i.e. the language of the population before the Romans and before the Phoenicians in Sardinia, but perhaps onomatology (name research) and in particular toponymy (place name research) can help. When I saw the place names Atzara and Aritzo, I thought of Basque. And I found out that paleo-linguists also see it that way, there is a connection between Nuragic and Proto-Basque (Aitzineuskara) [2a].”
[2a] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian_language
[3] https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aritzo
[4] http://www.sardegnadigitallibrary.it/index.php?xsl=626&id=190556 and a more elaborate text: http://www.lamiasardegna.it/aritzo.htm
[5] https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachisio_Sulis and http://www.lamiasardegna.it/aritzo.htm
[6] http://www.lamiasardegna.it/aritzo.htm
[7] San Pio da Pietrelcina santa messa alle ore 18.00 in Chiesa
https://www.facebook.com/443379642895272/photos/a.444199442813292/1021535801746317/   
[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padre_Pio
[9] „May the Lord bless you, watch you and turn his face towards you, give you mercy and give you peace.”
[10] During the past 50 years the population of Aritzo has been reduced from about 2400 to abou 1200. http://dati.istat.it/Index.aspx and https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aritzo

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Wild Horses on the Giara di Gesturi

The Giara di Gesturi (Sa Jara Manna in Sardanian) is a high plateau in Sardinia and a natural reserve (Parco Regionale della Giara) with wild life and a little extensive pastoral agriculture. Small rocks lie scattered on the flat ground interspersed with Macchia. There are small cork oaks, weather beaten. And now and then you may watch the small wild horses, the cavallini della Giara (Cuaddeddu de sa Jara in Sardinian).

The Giara della Gesturi has an altitude of approximately 550m and is only accessible via a few openings [1]. It's formed by basalt and there are some depressions (paulis in Sadinian) which store water, so wild can thrive throughout the dry summers. You will also find some Nuraghi there; Su Nuraxi di Barumini lies only a few kilometres south of the Giara di Gesturi.

There are about 700 heads of the cavallini della giara (Cuaddeddu de sa Jara in Sardinian). Though they might look like ponies, they are considered as horses. The reason for the small size is thought to be the harsh environment. The origins of this horse type is uncertain, but it is speculated that „it may have been brought into the island of Sardinia by the Phoenicians or by the Greeks in the 5th or 4th century BC“. Today there is nearly no use of the Giara horse by humans. Before the summer drought, the horses are herded together, counted and some of them are used to regulate the population. Some are killed for meat (“serve as meat suppliers”). In 1996 the "XXV Comunità Montana della Giara" was founded torepresent the interests of the wild horses and take care of the conservation of this species.

You will also see cattle on the Giara di Gesturi. At some points they are fed (hay) and the cavallini della Giara also feed there. They even don't fear the bulls (actually not the bulls hot for a fight).

Links and Notes:
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giara_di_Gesturi
[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giara_horse and https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giara-Pferd


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Alghero and a Pageant

 

Alghero is the Italian name of a town in Sardinia, but perhaps I should better have used L'Alguer, the Name in Alguerese [1]. Alghero had been conquered by Catalans in 1354 and the town has retained the language since the end of the Middle Ages. Algherese or Alguerese [2] is a variety of Catalan. Catalan was replaced first by Spanish, then by Italian and is recognized as a minority language today. Quite an achievement! But the number of speakers is constantly diminishing. My guess is that Alguerese has deviated from Catalan, but is going back to Standard Catalan, especially after Catalan has been recognized in Spain as one of the languages of this country. On the other hand Alguerese has loanwords from both Italian and Sardinian [3]. Let's see how it develops in later time.

Alghero bit us welcome with a pageant, which was part of a festival of culture (Adifolk), which unites Alghero with Catalonia [4]. The old town of Alghero was literally flooded by folk groups from Catalonia with dances, music, songs, and costumes. The event is part of the Sant Miquel Festival 2021 (the celebrations in honor of the patron saint). We could see Bastoners (they were rhythmically beating clap sticks), Gitanes (Gypsies), Capogrossos (Bigheads), Gigants, and others.

 

 

Former Catalan Prime Minister Carles Puigdemont wanted to take part in the Catalan event, but had been arrested upon arrival [5]. He was released by an Italian judge and left the penal institution in the city of Sassari in Sardinia, which is bout 30 km away from Alghero.

Only after the unexpected vibrant and loud event we looked at the the old city, which showed a remarkable tranquil aspect.

Links and Notes:
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alghero
[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algherese_dialect
[3] https://www.academia.edu/5492085/LAlguer_Alghero_a_Catalan_linguistic_enclave_in_Sardinia
[4] http://algherolive.it/2021/09/23/ladifolk-ad-alghero-la-festa-della-cultura-unisce-lisola-alla-catalogna-al-via-laplec-ecco-il-programma/
[5] https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000129934996/anhaenger-auf-sardinien-feierten-puigdemonts-freilassung

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Costa Smeralda with Porto Cervo in northern Sardinia

 

Costa Smeralda or Emerald Coast is a stretch of coastal area  in northern Sardegna (Sardinia). It's a bit more expensive and exclusive there, not exactly my way of life, but who likes it will find hotels in this category, white beaches, golf courses, shops (Gucci, Bulgari, Dior, Hermès, Versace or Louis Vuitton) to ruin your bank account, tennis courts etc. „Costa Smeralda is the most expensive location in Europe.“ [1]

Lots of destinations around the Mediterranean are concrete nightmares, not so Sardinia, at least where I chanced to visit the island, which is by the way nearly as big as Sicily. Porto Cerco has been been built according to a plan to keep the location chic. Prince Karim Aga Khan, together with a  consortium of companies (Consorzio Costa Smeralda), started to develop the area in 1962 [2]. The place quickly became popular with the jet set. Porto Cervo resembles a fishing village and its Marina offers more than 700 mooring spaces.

The buildings follow strictest building regulations and with the earth-coloured facades blend harmoniously and unobtrusively into the green („emerald“) landscape. The Piazzetta at the town centre is car-free. You won't find overhead cables. I think that Porto Cervo and Costa Smeralda served as a model for other parts of Sardinia.

Links, Notes etc.:
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Smeralda
[2] https://web.archive.org/web/20090711062529/http://www.charmingsardinia.com/booksardegna/SARDINIA-Olbia-Costa%20Smeralda-Badesi.pdf

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